Section 4: Human Performance Technology

Chapter 14 discusses the concept of the evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non-instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and provide a non-instructional solution to solve the problem.

As an ESOL teacher, one of the problems that I saw in the teaching of LEP students was a disconnect between what the teacher expects the student to learn and what the student takes as value from the lesson.  Several years ago, as part of a cadre of professional development designers and presenters, I attended a SIOP (Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol) training workshop presented by the authors of the model.  One of the key elements of the model was the explicit written expression of both language and content objectives. This concept intrigued me.  Thus when I returned to my classroom, I began posting the both language and content objectives, having the students write them down in their journals, and reviewing them at the close of class.  This simple activity proved extremely successful.  My students were then able to make a connection between what I wanted them to learn and what the lesson was. 

Chapter 15 presents several definitions of electronic performance support systems. In addition to these definitions, locate a few more and indicate your preference explaining why you prefer it. Additionally, describe why you believe EPSS have not been widely used and if they are more likely be become more prevalent in the future. 

A computer system that provides quick assistance and information without requiring prior training to use it. It may incorporate all forms of multimedia delivery as well as AI techniques such as expert systems and natural language recognition.   Taken from PC Mag.com

An integrated electronic environment that is available to and easily accessible by each employee and is structured to provide immediate individualized on-line access to the full range of information software guidance advice and assistance data images tools and assessment and monitoring systems to permit job performance with minimal support and intervention by others. –Gloria Gery

I prefer the Gery definition of EPSS because it is a clearer explanation of what is actually expected of the system.  The PC Mag definition leaves the potential user believing that no prior training is required.  This thinking is fundamentally flawed and assumes a technical knowledge that the end-user may not possess. 

The most obvious deterrent to implementing an EPSS is the resistance to change.  The process requires, as stated in the text, a change in both productivity and management style.  Additionally, lack of wide-spread knowledge may preclude users from envisioning the potential positive impact on performance.

As the world becomes more and more entrenched in technical design, I believe that EPSS will ultimately gain in popularity and become more accepted. 

Knowledge management is the way we manage information, share that information, and use it. Organizations, such as schools, are full of information/data and we must organize that data in a way that we can make sense of it. We use data to make decisions and good data=good decision-making. Identify a real or hypothetical problem in your line of work. How might a blended learning approach, including the use of a knowledge management system, be use to solve the problem? 

The inability to effectively manage our collective knowledge within public schools is a systemic shortcoming in most schools.  Often the issue is not that no one knows what to do, but that the information is divided, much like random puzzle pieces.  The function, therefore, of the Knowledge Management System is to put the pieces of the puzzle together in a central location, so that the parts create a cohesive whole. 

An easy example of this in my department comes in scheduling.  As LEP students have different needs than other students, the ESOL department has created a curriculum that deviates from that of the general education student.  Scheduling of students, however, is done by the Counseling department.  Often times, the goals of the Counseling department, to graduate a student in four years, is in juxtaposition to the goals of the ESOL department, to assure that students have adequate language skills to be successful in general education courses.  The effective implementation of a Knowledge Management System could create an environment where the information held by and the goals of both departments are combined. 

Describe the types of informal learning you have been exposed to in your adult life. What was the purpose? What was the experience like? Was it engaging? Social? What role did you play? What role did the instructor play? 

Informal learning by definition is self-motivated.  When teachers share knowledge and expand their horizons in a natural environment they create a more valued work experience.  A reverse example of this happened in my school.  There are several departments that met informally to discuss shared students, both superior and problem students.  The administration found that those departments had an overall better relationship with their students, and consequently the students performed better.  Thus, they wanted to formalize the experience.  In doing so they created mandated times and forms and specific learning objectives to be covered in each meeting.  The result was that teachers were resentful and ultimately spent more time understanding the process than they did brainstorming effective strategies for their students.   As stated in the text, there is a time and place for both formal and informal learning and sharing of information.  It is important to value the benefits of each.

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction.

One method of evaluating instructional design is the ADDIE method, often believed to be at the core of all subsequent methodologies.  The premise is upon:

                       

            ANALYSIS:    Questioning learners, instruction, and methodology

            DESIGN:         Design of the delivery method combined with the 

                                   learner objectives                                                             

            DEVELOPMENT:            Physical development of the curricular components

            IMPLEMENTATION:       Blueprint of the facilitation is created

            EVALUATION:   Ongoing formative assessment and summative

                                      evaluation of specific components of the plan

The ADDIE method is considered the “gold standard” of instructional design, the root of all other methods.  As such, the basic tenets could be adapted easily into any form of instruction.

A different approach to instructional design is the Kemp method.  This design consists of 9 different steps:

* Problem identification

* Target group identification and analysis

* Problem identification

* Analysis of the tasks

* Defining the instructional objectives

* Sequencing the content

* Determining the instructional strategies

* Designing the instructional materials

*  Delivery of instruction

*  Development of the evaluation process for instructional objectives

The Kemp model differs from most forms of instructional design evaluation in that it provides a flexibility not seen in other models.  The intent was to allow the user the freedom to approach design from whatever stage is most beneficial.  Thus, the designer need not begin again with step 2, if the root of the issue is in the instructional materials.  While this seems to offer a great deal of ease in its implementation, my fear is that it would be tempting to skip vital components of the evaluation process.

Think about a technological innovation within your social system that was recently introduced (social system = place of work, home, etc.). Any innovation has what is known as perceived attributes - relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Describe these attributes of the innovation and which of the attributes assisted and/or hindered adoption of the innovation. For example, was it not compatible with the existing beliefs of the system or was it overly complex to use or understand?

Within my district, we recently implemented a computerized data system, called Dashboard, which allows teachers to monitor student progress based on previous student testing scores and data.  The system itself is based on the compilation of previous years’ test scores and uses an aggregate predictability measure to project the students’ future performance.  On the surface, the system contains a wealth of information that would benefit teachers and students.  However, the implementation was ill conceived.  There was no prior information given to teachers and the entire training its use was a 60-minute large group meeting.  As the level of teacher proficiency in technology was not factored into the design, most of the hour-long session was spent assisting teachers log-on to the system.  There were no learner objectives stated, thus the teachers were not clear what they were to be learning nor what to do with the information contained.  Additionally, the system as presented was extremely cumbersome.  While it did have lots of graphic attributes and color-coding to make the information easy to visualize, the system as a whole has not been well accepted.

Chapter's 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project?

Situational leadership fundamentally necessitates the use of flexibility in leadership.  Teachers, as a group, seem to be later-adapters than other work groups.  In order design workshops for teachers, it is imperative to maintain flexibility in approach.  In order to successfully implement the professional development there are key questions that must be first considered:

            What is the generational diversity of the group?

            What technical processes and terms are common amongst the group?

            How does each member of the group learn best?

            What prior knowledge does the group have?

            What resistance does the group have to the subject being presented?

In designing a technological module for teachers on a broad scale, it is important to consider the varying levels of expertise.  To do this in a manner that does not alienate the proficient, nor lose the novice, it is best to address the issue openly at the outset, acknowledging the differences.  I would achieve this with a brief, but entertaining ice-breaker to introduce the relevant technical terms.  Perhaps in a small group exercise that allows those that are more proficient to assist the novice with learning the pertinent terms.  In order to ease the comfort level of the less experienced, providing the whole group with a 1-page, printed definition of the terms so that they may refer back as needed for reinforcement. 

Specifically with new technology, it is important to move slowly in the introduction of the material.  If the information can be delivered in a multi-faceted approach, the group can work through the information with a hands-on approach.  Assuming a curricular change, guiding participants through the process online.  This should be followed-up with an opportunity for participants to practice the information during the session, so that questions can be addressed while the facilitator is present to assist.  As before, it is important that the information presented also be given in a teacher-friendly, printed format.  Finally, if resources permit, having as much information available online will be helpful to more experienced users. 

Probably the most important step in introducing the information to teachers is follow-thru.  As the professional development is designed as  a series, there should be specific learner tasks assigned at each meeting so that they can practice in the interim and then bring back their experiences in subsequent sessions.  This also allows the facilitator to effectively build upon what has been learned in each session.

Although, it may be a better use of resources to have the program presented in an online format or a web-based interface, my experience with teachers has been that variance of computer ability would limit the participation and would be more likely to lead to a rejection of the technology. 

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction, Continued

I’ve used a basic Chart to show how the parts of Gagne’s Events of Instruction and the First Principles relate to each other:

GAGNE                            FIRST PRINCIPLES                   SHARED ATTRIBUTES

Gaining Attention                     Demonstration of Knowledge               Enhancing Retention

Activating Motivation               Integration of Knowledge                      Eliciting Performance

Presenting Stimulus Material                                                                    Learning Guidance

Providing Feedback                                                                                     Activiating Prior Knowledge

Assessing Performance

Briefly describe how you might use the whole-task approach, scaffolding, and mathemagneic methods to help students learn to perform a task. 

As an ESL teacher, some of the holistic instructional designs are more inherent in working with second language learners.  In the aforementioned learner goal, the Whole Task design is utilized at the end of the lesson cycle when the students write reflectively about the moral dilemma facing the character, supported by the text.  Scaffolding design is used in providing relevant cultural background and in vocabulary.  This is particular design is used most often by teachers with speakers of other languages, in order to ever develop comprehension and understanding the teacher must provide the basic elements the student is missing. 

You have been hired to design a course for a topic in your area of specialization. Using Table 9.2 as a template, what would you incorporate into each subcategory to motivate learners?

SIOP Strategies for the General Education Teacher

ATTENTION: 

Perpetual Arousal           Show teachers a video of the Three Little Pigs read in Tagalog.

Inquiry Arousal               Ask teachers to use context clues to figure out the main idea of the story.

Variety                                 Vary instruction with video clips, PowerPoint, and discussion.

RELEVANCE:

Goal Orientation              Ask teachers to identify the number of LEP students they have taught                                                                and have them share the easiest and most difficult thing about having them                                                     in class.

Motive Matching             Show teachers a demographic map that illustrates number of LEP students                                                     in the state/district/school and the corresponding TAKS scores.

Familiarity                         Question teachers about their previous language experiences.

CONFIDENCE:

Learning Requirement                 Have teachers form small groups to discuss the challenges and                                                                               successes they faced their first year of teaching.  Have each group                                                                         share an example. 

Success Opportunities  Have teachers chart what they already do to assist their language learners.

Personal Control             Have teachers take a common lesson and insert appropriate SIOP strategies.

SATISFACTION:

Intrinsic Reinforcement              Allow teacher groups to share their SIOP enhanced lessons with the                                                                    whole group.

Extrinsic Reinforcement             Show teachers’ specific data that indicates the LEP student impact on                                                                                 teacher performance.

Equity                                                  Continually validate teachers’ input and guide them to a greater                                                                             understanding of SIOP methodology.

Finally, after completing these activities, discuss the benefits of engaging in design research.

In order to continuously improve in the quality of instruction, ongoing evaluation and assessment must occur; not only as to the content of what is taught, but in how it is taught.  To ignore the design of instructional delivery would be to only evaluate one half of of the equation.                         

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Section 2:  Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Identify a specific learning goal and how you would incorporate two learning theories highlighted in Chapter 4 to achieve this goal.

The learning goal I chose for this activity was taken from my current weeks’ lesson plans, for English II for SOL:  Students will analyze differences in characters moral dilemmas in works of fiction across different countries or cultures.  Although this concept may seem easy enough for native English speakers, when teaching an ESL class with speakers of numerous languages and varied cultural backgrounds, activating prior knowledge, taken from the Cognitive Information Processing Theory, is key to students understanding.  To do this, students are initially given 3-5 minutes to recall a time when they have had to make a moral decision in their own lives.  Students will then write one of their choices on the Smart Board.  Finally, we discuss previous readings in which the character had to make a moral decision.  Students will generally recall The Bet, The Necklace, and The Pit and the Pendulum from the first semester’s readings. 

As this lesson is predicated on a short story set in India, My Lord, the Baby, would also integrate the Situated Learning Theory.  The text defines this as, “…situated learning theory relies more on social and cultural determinants of learning than it does on individual psychology.   Specifically, knowledge is presumed to be accrue in ‘meaningful actions, actions that have relations of meaning to one another in terms of some cultural system.” (Reiser, p 40)

Find a reference that describes Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction.  Then create a table or chart that compares and contrasts those events with the first principles described in chapter 7 and describe how you would apply each of the first principles to the goal you’ve developed from the first activity in this reflection.

This chart is taken from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/edPsybook/Edpsy3/edpsy3_instruction.htm

Table 3.2. Events of Instruction and Phases of Learning and How They Relate to Learner Activities.
Event of Instruction	Learning Phase	How Teacher or Text Does It	How Students Self-Instruct	When to Skip This Event
1 Gaining attention	1 Attention: Alertness	Sudden stimulus change. Call for attention.	Underlining Attentional  set Mood management.	When attention can be assumed - when learner is already alert.
2 Informing the learner of the objective: activating motivation.	2 Expectancy	State objectives and relate them to students’ needs and interests.	Student selects own objectives. (This usually comes first.)	Almost never - but maybe if the objective is obvious.
3 Stimulating recall of prior knowledge.	3 Retrieval to Working Memory of prerequisite information	"Remember...." Give an exercise or review activity to recall previous information.	Student looks for and retrieves relevant prior information. Often students do this without even realizing that it is happening.	Almost never - but skillful self-learners may do this themselves.
4 Presenting the stimulus material.	4 Selective Perception	Text, audiovisual, or voice presentation. Objects or demonstration materials Show distinctive features and focus attention on them.	Student seeks out and finds relevant material to provide instruction.	Almost never - although learners may acquire stimulus material on their own initiative.
5 Providing learning guidance	5 Encoding: Entry to Long-term Memory Storage	Provide meaningful context. Offer organizing strategies. Relate encoding to the objectives.	Student uses rehearsal or chunking strategies. Student selects storage structures to retain in-formation. Student employs cognitive strategies	When the learner already possesses effective cognitive strategies.
6 Eliciting performance	6 Responding	Ask learner to perform. Use review quizzes or recital questions	Student performs without prompting from teacher.	Student performs without prompting
7 Providing feedback	7 Feedback	Inform learner of degree of correctness of answer.	Student evaluates own performance	Almost never - but sometimes the student does it.
8 Assessing performance	7 Feedback	Teacher samples repeated performance and makes judgment about quality.	Student tests self and modifies strategies or plans for self-instruction as necessary.	Student may assess self and make accurate judgments.
9 Enhancing retention and transfer	8 Cueing Retrieval	Spaced reviews, including a variety of examples and applications.	Student looks for more examples of additional relationships.	Student may take initiative to seek additional examples and relationships.